Innehållsförteckning för Issue 7 från Linux Coding & Programming The Complete Manual

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FREE AND OPEN Linux is a fantastic fit for those who want something different. The efficiency of the system, the availability of applications and stability are just a few good reasons. The first thing you need to know is that there is no such operating system called Linux. Linux is in fact the operating system kernel, the core component of an OS. When talking about Linux what we, and others, are referring to are one of the many distributions, or distros, that use the Linux kernel. No doubt you’ve heard of at least one of the current popular distros: Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, Debian, Raspbian, the list goes on. Each one of these distros offer something a little different for the user. While each has the Linux kernel at…

WHICH MINT? A Desktop Environment is the graphical interface which you use to interact with the core Linux system. Just as the graphical desktop for Windows 10 is also called Fluent Design. Linux Mint offers the user a choice of versions of the distro: Cinnamon, MATE and Xfce. While that may sound a little confusing for the newcomer, essentially each of the versions available contains the same core Linux structure and kernel, the kernel is the core of the operating system, that handles all the instructions between the software and hardware. Each version is simply a different desktop environment, the Graphical User Interface (GUI) that you use to interact with the operating system. Each of the desktop environments uses different apps to access or use the system, such as the…

DVD BOOTABLE MEDIA We’re using a Windows 10 PC here to transfer the ISO to a DVD. If you’re using a version of Windows from 7 onward the process is extremely easy. STEP 1 First locate the ISO image of Linux you’ve already downloaded. You can usually find it in the Downloads folder in Windows 7, 8.1 and 10 computers, unless you specified a different location when saving it. STEP 2 Next insert a recordable DVD disc into your computer’s optical drive. After a few seconds, while the disc is read, Windows displays a pop-up message asking you what to do with the newly inserted disc. Ignore this, as we’re going to use the built-in image burning function. STEP 3 Right-click the Linux ISO and from the menu select Burn…

CREATING THE VM There are plenty of options to choose from when creating a VM. For now though, let’s set up a VM adequate to run Mint Cinnamon and perform well. STEP 1 With VirtualBox open, click on the New icon in the top right of the app. This opens the new VM Wizard. STEP 2 In the box next to Name, type Linux Mint and VirtualBox should automatically choose Linux as the Type and Ubuntu (64-bit) as the Version; if not then use the drop-down boxes to select the correct settings (remember Mint mainstream is based on Ubuntu). Click Next when you’re ready to proceed. STEP 3 The next section defines the amount of system memory, or RAM, the VM has allocated. Remember this amount is taken from the…

A TOUCH OF SPICE The Cinnamon desktop environment is a great blend of style and performance. There’s lots to like about it, which is why it’s such a popular DE. STEP 1 Begin exploring the Cinnamon desktop by doubleclicking the Computer icon. This brings up Nemo, the file manager used in Cinnamon. The Computer icon opens up the root level file system, with access and views to the optical drive (if you have one installed), hard drive and core Linux file system. STEP 2 The Linux file system can appear confusing to a former Windows user, so until you’re a little more knowledgeable on how it all works, we’d recommend you concentrate on the Home icon on the desktop instead. In here is everything relating to your user account: where…

NEW USERS Having different users means each user has access to his or hers own areas on the system. Documents, pictures, videos and so on are separate, as with multiple users on other operating systems. STEP 1 Click on the Linux Mint Menu and type ‘users’ to begin searching for the relevant console. From the search results, choose Users and Groups and enter your password. The Users and Groups console is quite basic looking, and thankfully easy to use. At first, you can just see your own username from when you installed Linux Mint. STEP 2 To add a new user, click the Add button at the bottom of the console. There are two types of user you can create, Standard and Administrator. Unless the new user has need to…

“Linux: the operating system with a CLUE… Command Line User Environment.”– Anonymous (Posted on comp. software.testing) The Linux command line, the Terminal, is an incredibly powerful environment. From it, you can bring the OS to its knees, or update it to something spectacular. You can hack into remote computers, look at an animated ASCII camp fire, install new apps and programs, watch Star Wars played out from a server in the Netherlands, and code intricate automated scripts. In this section you will explore the intricacies of the Terminal, and how it works with Linux. You will learn how to manipulate the Linux file system from the Terminal, and you will discover some odd, but fun things you can do in the Terminal. The Terminal rules supreme in the world of…

COMMAND LINE INSTALLS Installing an app with the Terminal may require some nifty keyboard work but you get a better sense of what’s being installed and where. STEP 1 Installing apps form the Terminal is often relatively simple. First though, you need to make sure that the system is up to date. To do this open up the Terminal and enter: sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade. Enter your password and accept any necessary updates. STEP 2 Just as you’ve seen, sudo apt-get update/upgrade and so on are designed to upgrade the software that’s already installed on the system. How do you install more apps though? It just so happens that it’s extraordinarily simple. First you need an app to install, so let’s use Stella again. Enter: sudo apt-get…

MANAGING FOLDERS Learning how to create and delete folders in the Terminal is an important Mint, and indeed Linux overall, skill to master. Here’s the basics for you to try out. STEP 1 With the Terminal open enter cd ~ to make sure you’re in your own Home directory. Now enter ls to view the current folders you have housed in the Home directory. You’ll notice that folders are labelled in Mint in cyan (light blue). Let’s start by creating a new directory. Enter: mkdir testdir. STEP 2 If you now enter ls again, you’ll see that the new directory, testdir, has been created alongside the other directories in the Home area. Obviously the command mkdir is what creates the directory, and no doubt you’ve already guessed it stands for…

TAKING COMMAND There are countless Linux tips, secrets, hacks and tricks out there. Some are very old, originating from Linux’s Unix heritage, while others are recent additions to Linux lore. Here’s our favourite ten tips and tricks. EASTER EGGS Emacs, the text editor, is a great piece of software, however, did you know it also contains a hidden Easter Egg? With Emacs installed (sudo apt-get install emacs25), drop to a Terminal session and enter: Dunnet is a text adventure written by Ron Schnell in 1982, and hidden in Emacs since 1994. MOON BUGGY Based on the classic 1982 arcade game, Moon Patrol, Moon Buggy appeared on the home computers of 1985 amid much praise. It’s a cracking Atari game, and it’s available in the Linux Terminal by entering: Then: Enjoy.…

VARIABLES Just as in every other programming language a Bash script can store and call certain variables from the system, either generic or user created. STEP 1 Let’s start by creating a new script called hello.sh; xed hello.sh. In it enter: #!/bin/bash, then, echo Hello $1. Save the file and exit Xed. Back in the Terminal make the script executable with: chmod +x hello.sh. STEP 2 As the script is now executable, run it with. /hello.sh. Now, as you probably expected a simple ‘Hello’ is displayed in the Terminal. However, if you then issue the command with a variable, it begins to get interesting. For example, try. /hello.sh David. STEP 3 The output now will be Hello David. This is because Bash automatically assigns variables for the user, which are…

EASY AUTOMATION AND HANDY SCRIPTS Entering line after line of commands to retrieve system information, find a file or rename a batch of files? A script is a better answer. STEP 1 Let’s start by creating a script to help display the Mint system information; always a handy thing to have. Create a new script called sysinfo.sh and enter the following into Xed, or the text editor of your choice. STEP 2 We’ve included a couple of extra commands in this script. The first is the -e extension for echo, this means it’ll enable echo interpretation of additional instances of a new line, as well as other special characters. The proceeding ‘31;43m’ element enables colour for foreground and background. STEP 3 Each of the sections runs a different Terminal command,…

A adduser Add a new user arch Print machine architecture awk Find and replace text within file(s) B bc An arbitrary precision calculator language C cat Concatenate files and print on the standard output chdir Change working directory chgrp Change the group ownership of files chroot Change root directory cksum Print CRC checksum and byte counts cmp Compare two files comm Compare two sorted files line by line cp Copy one or more files to another location crontab Schedule a command to run at a later time csplit Split a file into context-determined pieces cut Divide a file into several parts D date Display or change the date & time dc Desk calculator dd Data Dump, convert and copy a file diff Display the differences between two files dirname Convert…

PYTHON POWER Ever since the earliest home computers were available, enthusiasts, users and professionals have toiled away until the wee hours, slaving over an overheating heap of circuitry to create something akin to magic. These pioneers of programming carved their way into a new frontier, forging small routines that enabled the letter ‘A’ to scroll across the screen. It may not sound terribly exciting to a generation that’s used to ultra high-definition graphics and open world, multiplayer online gaming. However, forty-something years ago it was blindingly brilliant. Naturally these bedroom coders helped form the foundations for every piece of digital technology we use today. Some went on to become chief developers for top software companies, whereas others pushed the available hardware to its limits and founded the billion pound gaming…

PLAYING WITH PYTHON With most languages, computer or human, it’s all about remembering and applying the right words to the right situation. You’re not born knowing these words, so you need to learn them. STEP 1 If you’ve closed Python 3 IDLE, reopen it in whichever operating system version you prefer. In the Shell, enter the familiar following: STEP 2 Just as predicted, the word Hello appears in the Shell as blue text, indicating output from a string. It’s fairly straightforward and doesn’t require too much explanation. Now try: STEP 3 You can see that instead of the number 4, the output is the 2+2 you asked to be printed to the screen. The quotation marks are defining what’s being outputted to the IDLE Shell; to print the total of…

DID YOU KNOW… that when Space Invaders creator, Tomohiro Nishikado, was coding Space Invaders, he had to create his own hardware and development tools to write the game. Furthermore, he then discovered that as a result of the coding and the custom hardware, the fewer Invaders on-screen the faster the processor was able to render them. Thus, as you kill more Invaders, the faster they become. So rather than design the game to compensate for the speed increase, he decided to keep it as a challenging gameplay mechanism.…

VARIOUS VARIABLES You’ll be working with the Python 3 IDLE Shell in this tutorial. If you haven’t already, open Python 3 or close down the previous IDLE Shell to clear up any old code. STEP 1 In some programming languages you’re required to use a dollar sign to denote a string, which is a variable made up of multiple characters, such as a name of a person. In Python this isn’t necessary. For example, in the Shell enter: name=”David Hayward” (or use your own name, unless you’re also called David Hayward). STEP 2 You can check the type of variable in use by issuing the type () command, placing the name of the variable inside the brackets. In our example, this would be: type (name). Add a new string variable:…

TRUE CONDITIONS Keeping conditions simple to begin with makes learning to program a more enjoyable experience. Let’s start then by checking if something is TRUE, then doing something else if it isn’t. STEP 1 Let’s create a new Python program that will ask the user to input a word, then check it to see if it’s a four-letter word or not. Start with File > New File, and begin with the input variable: STEP 2 Now we can create a new variable, then use the len function and pass the word variable through it to get the total number of letters the user has just entered: STEP 3 Now you can use an if statement to check if the word_length variable is equal to four and print a friendly conformation…

C EVERYTHING Due to how complex the language can be, and its power and performance, C++ is often used to develop games, programs, device drivers and even entire operating systems. Dating back to 1979, the start of the golden era of home computing, C++, or rather C with Classes, was the brainchild of Danish computer scientist Bjarne Stroustrup while working on his PhD thesis. Stroustrup’s plan was to further the original C language, which was widely used since the early seventies. C++ proved to be popular among the developers of the ‘80s, since it was a much easier environment to get to grips with and more importantly, it was 99% compatible with the original C language. This meant that it could be used beyond the mainstream computing labs and by…

GREETINGS FROM C++ Compiling and executing code from within Geany is remarkably simple and just a matter of clicking a couple of icons and seeing the result. Here’s how it’s done. STEP 1 Open Geany, if you haven’t already, and load up the previously saved Hello World code you created. Ensure that there are no visible errors, such as a missing semicolon at the end of the std::cout line. STEP 2 If your code is ready, look to the menu bar along the top of the Geany window. Notice that midway along the line of icons there’s a red brick icon. This is Build, which when clicked runs through the code, checking it against the C++ standards to see if there are any errors that stop it from running. STEP…

THE DECLARATION OF VARIABLES You can declare a C++ variable by using statements within the code. There are several distinct types of variable you can declare. Here’s how it works. STEP 1 Open up a new, blank C++ file and enter the usual code headers: STEP 2 Start simple by creating two variables, a and b, with one having a value of 10 and the other 5. You can use the data type int to declare these variables. Within the curly brackets enter: STEP 3 You can build and run the code but it won’t do much, other than store the values 10 and 5 to the integers a and b. Ignore the warnings about variables set but not used, the code still works. To output the contents of the…

C++ = MC2 The basic mathematical symbols apply in C++ as they do in most other programming languages. However, by using the C++ Math Library, you can also calculate square roots, powers, trig and more. STEP 1 C++’s mathematical operations follow the same patterns as those taught in school, in that multiplication and division take precedence over addition and subtraction. You can alter that though. For now, create a new file and enter: STEP 2 While simple, it does get the old maths muscle warmed up. Note that we used a float for the numbers variable. While you can happily use an integer, if you suddenly started to use decimals, you would need to change to a float or a double, depending on the accuracy needed. Run the code and…

X=MISTAKE, PRINT Y There are many pitfalls for the programmer to be aware of, far too many to be listed here. Being able to recognise a mistake and fix it is when you start to move into more advanced territory, and become a better coder. Everyone makes mistakes, even coders with over thirty years’ experience. Learning from these basic, common mistakes help build a better coding foundation. SMALL CHUNKS It would be wonderful to be able to work like Neo from The Matrix movies. Simply ask, your operator loads it into your memory and you instantly know everything about the subject. Sadly though, we can’t do that. The first major pitfall is someone trying to learn too much, too quickly. So take coding in small pieces and take your time.…

Linux is everywhere. It powers the Internet as the main operating system behind the Web’s servers, it powers spacecraft, it’s the operating system for the fastest supercomputers in the world and it’s used in smart TVs and mobile devices. Why? Because it’s ultra stable, lightning fast and completely free of charge. However, there’s more to Linux than simply being a free to use operating system. Its unique configuration allows the user to customise and personalise the OS into any form they wish. A Linux user can change their OS look and feel from one day to the next, install thousands of freely available apps and programs and take back control of their computer. With this book, you too can become a part of the open community of Linux users. The…

GOING LINUX The installation process for most distributions is similar. You download a disk image from the website and burn it to an optical disk or create a USB Flash Drive installer. Just be careful to get the right distribution for your hardware and read the instructions carefully. LINUX MINT By far the most popular Linux distro (distribution) is Linux Mint. Mint began life back in 2006, as an alternative to the then most popular distro, Ubuntu. Although based on Ubuntu’s Long Term Support build, Linux Mint took a different direction and offered the user a better overall experience. Linux Mint has three main desktop versions available with each new version of the core OS it releases. This may sound confusing at first but it’s quite simple. Currently, Linux Mint…

DISTRO HOPPING Distro hopping is a term used by the community for people who never stick to a single distribution. Instead, they hop from one to the other and back again, testing each, using them, then moving on to another or a newly released distro. There’s nothing wrong with distro hopping, as it’s a good way to get to grips with what’s out there and discover the elements of one distro over another that may or may not appeal to your tastes. The problem of course is which one do you use overall? While distro hopping is a good thing, it’s not exactly a stable way to enjoy Linux and get the most from it. We’re not saying you should stick to one distro and never look elsewhere, as you…

UEFI BIOS The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is used to identify hardware and protect a PC during its boot-up process. It replaces the traditional BIOS but can cause issues when installing Linux. STEP 1 Insert your DVD or USB flash drive into your PC and, if you haven’t already, shutdown Windows. In this instance we’re using the USB boot media but the process is virtually identical. Start the PC and when prompted press the appropriate keys to enter the BIOS or SETUP, which could for example be: F2, Del or even F12. STEP 2 There are different versions of a UEFI BIOS, so covering them all would be impossible. What you’re looking for is a section that details the Boot Sequence or Boot Mode. Here you have the option…

We’ve used Linux Mint as a guideline here, as it’s an easy to use distro and perfect for former Windows users. It’s also one of the most developed and well documented Linux distros as well as having some fantastic configuration options. In this section, we introduce the Linux Mint Cinnamon Menu and Desktop Environment, how it works and what you can do to customise it. Want to create another user or even discover how to become anonymous online? Then read on. “Anyone can build a fast processor. The trick is to build a fast system.”– Seymour Cray (Electrical Engineer, and designer/founder of Cray Supercomputers)…

LINUX TWEAKS Some of these post-installation actions are highly recommended, while others are just handy additions and simply tweak the system or add a customisation. STEP 1 The first, and most important, post-installation action is to update the system. Click on the shield icon in the Panel, found at the bottom right of the desktop next to the time and date. This launches the Update Manager. STEP 2 Linux Mint offers the user a three level policy approach to updates: Don’t Break My Computer, Optimise Stability and Security and Always Update Everything. The recommended option is the Optimise Stability and Security, which only updates safe, essential patches that won’t impact critical elements of the core OS. Read through the descriptions but choose the middle, and recommended option. STEP 3 Click…

YOUR DESKTOP Linux is probably one of the customisable operating systems there is. With just a few tweaks, one or two extras installed and some imagination, you can create something incredible. STEP 1 The first aspect of desktop customisation is to change the wallpaper. Right-click the desktop and choose Change Desktop Background. This opens the Backgrounds app in Linux Mint; remember, other distros may present their background, wallpaper selection tools differently. STEP 2 More recent versions of Linux Mint display available backgrounds depending on the version the user is running. You normally get three categories followed by a fourth, Pictures, which is separated from the others. The Pictures option is different because it reads the image content from the Pictures folder in your Home area. STEP 3 You just need…

TAKING COMMAND The command line, or Terminal, is an extremely powerful interface. Everything you can do on the desktop can be done within the Terminal. Let’s start by seeing how it works. STEP 1 The Terminal can be accessed by either clicking on the Terminal icon on the Panel, located between the Firefox and files icons or launched by opening the Menu and selecting it from the left-hand quick launch strip. STEP 2 The Terminal gives you access to the Linux Mint Shell, called Bash, which gives you access to the underlying operating system. Everything in Mint, including the desktop and GUI, is a module running from the command line. STEP 3 What you currently see in the Terminal is your login name followed by the name of the computer;…

FROM THE SOURCE The commands you’ll need to become familiar with here are Configure, Make and Install. You’ll find a lot of apps use installing from source, so it’s certainly a skill worth investing time in. STEP 1 Source code files for Linux usually come in the form of. TAR.GZ or. TAR.BZ2. Both are compressed files holding all the core files needed to ‘make’ the app. Start off this tutorial by creating a new folder in Home: mkdir Vim. STEP 2 Vim, by the way, is an advanced text editor which we’ll use as an example to install. Enter the new folder, cd Vim, then from within the new Vim folder, enter the following command into the Terminal: wget ftp://ftp.vim.org/pub/vim/unix/vim-7.4.tar.bz2. STEP 3 The wget command retrieves content from the internet,…

TERMINAL FUN You’ll be working exclusively in the Terminal for these next two sections, so start warming up your fingers. After all, all work and no play… as the saying goes. STEP 1 The first command we’re going to use is sl, it’s not installed by default so enter: sudo apt-get install sl. The command can be run with sl and when executed will display a Steam Locomotive travelling across the screen (hence ‘sl’). Entering LS, note the upper case, also works. STEP 2 Fans of Star Wars even get a fix when it comes to the Terminal. By linking to a remote server via the telnet command, you can watch Episode IV: A New Hope being played out, albeit in ASCII. To view this spectacle, enter: telnet towel.blinkenlights.nl. STEP…

DID YOU KNOW… that Linux is at the heart of the science behind the Large Hadron Collider? Using a combination of Red Hat Linux and CentOS (an ultra-stable distro built from the Red Hat core) as the base distributions of choice, scientists, developers and engineers have created SL – Scientific Linux. Using SL as the base, the clever people at CERN have developed several different versions of their own custom Linux distro to help with all aspects of the LHC. Most notable is SLC, or Scientific Linux CERN, also known as CERN6. According to reports, there are over 36,000 systems running SL, and over 15,000 running SLC.…

IF, THEN, ELSE With most programming structures there will come a time where you need to loop through the commands you’ve entered to create better functionality, and ultimately a better program. STEP 1 Let’s look at the If, Then and Else statements now, which when executed correctly, compare a set of instructions and simply work out that IF something is present, THEN do something, ELSE do something different. Create a new script called greeting2.sh and enter the text in the screenshot below into it. STEP 2 Greeting2.sh is a copy of greeting.sh but with a slight difference. Here we’ve added a loop starting at the if statement. This means, IF the variable entered is equal to David the next line, THEN, is the reaction to what happens, in this case…

When the Raspberry Pi was in its developmental stages its designers needed to ensure that they were creating a piece of hardware that could offer much more than simply being a cheap, but small, computer. The Pi needed to be flexible with what it could do, it needed to have room to grow into more ambitious project concepts and ideas, and it needed to do so in as easy to use fashion as possible. The goal was to create a universal learning platform, that students of any age could expand on and tinker with, while learning new concepts such as programming, electronics, and computing. Naturally, once the hardware was developed, the only real choice of operating system was of course, Linux. The versatility of Linux is legendary. This incredible core…

DID YOU KNOW… that NASA’s state-of-the-art supercomputing cluster, Pleiades, is powered by Linux? Pleiades consists of 160 racks (11,440 nodes), 245,536 CPU cores, a total memory count of 935TB, 184,320 NVIDIA CUDA cores, and over six miles of fibre optic cabling. At the heart of it lies a complex setup of SUSE Linux Enterprise Server, along with many custom development packages and other software unique to NASA’s projects. The projects NASA’s Advanced Supercomputing Division uses Pleiades for are: The Kepler Mission – searching for extra-solar Earth-like planets; CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) modelling to help create more efficient space launch systems; Dark Matter research and simulation; and visualisation of Earth’s ocean currents, building data for the ECCO (Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean) Project.…

PYTHON PENGUIN Linux is such a versatile operating system that it’s often difficult to nail down just one way of doing something. Different distributions go about installing software in different ways, so we’re sticking with Linux Mint for this particular tutorial. STEP 1 First you need to ascertain which version of Python is currently installed in your Linux system. To begin with, drop into a Terminal session from your distro’s menu or hit the Ctrl+Alt+T keys. STEP 2 Next enter python --version into the Terminal screen. You should have the output relating to version 2.x of Python in the display. By default, most Linux distros come with both Python 2 and 3, as there’s plenty of code out there still available for Python 2. Now enter: python3 --version. STEP 3…

EDITING CODE You will eventually reach a point where you have to move on from inputting single lines of code into the Shell. Instead, the IDLE Editor will allow you to save and execute your Python code. STEP 1 First, open the Python IDLE Shell and when it’s up, click on File > New File. This will open a new window with Untitled as its name. This is the Python IDLE Editor and within it you can enter the code needed to create your future programs. STEP 2 The IDLE Editor is, for all intents and purposes, a simple text editor with Python features, colour coding and so on; much in the same vein as Sublime. You enter code as you would within the Shell, so taking an example from…

IT’S ALL MATHS, MAN You can get some really impressive results with the mathematical powers of Python; as with most, if not all, programming languages, maths is the driving force behind the code. STEP 1 Open up the GUI version of Python 3, as mentioned you can use either the Shell or the Editor. For the time being, you’re going to use the Shell just to warm our maths muscle, which we believe is a small gland located at the back of the brain (or not). STEP 2 In the Shell enter the following: You can see that Python can handle some quite large numbers. STEP 3 You can use all the usual mathematical operations: divide, multiply, brackets and so on. Practise with a few, for example: STEP 4 You’ve…

USER FRIENDLY The type of input you want from the user will depend greatly on the type of program you’re coding. For example, a game may ask for a character’s name, whereas a database can ask for personal details. STEP 1 If it’s not already, open the Python 3 IDLE Shell, and start a New File in the Editor. Let’s begin with something really simple, enter: STEP 2 Save and execute the code, and as you already no doubt suspected, in the IDLE Shell the program will ask for your first name, storing it as the variable firstname, followed by your surname; also stored in its own variable (surname). STEP 3 Now that we have the user’s name stored in a couple of variables we can call them up whenever…

MASTERING MODULES Think of modules as an extension that’s imported into your Python code to enhance and extend its capabilities. There are countless modules available and as we’ve seen, you can even make your own. STEP 1 Although good, the built-in functions within Python are limited. The use of modules, however, allows us to make more sophisticated programs. As you are aware, modules are Python scripts that are imported, such as import math. STEP 2 Some modules, especially on the Raspberry Pi, are included by default, the Math module being a prime example. Sadly, other modules aren’t always available. A good example on non-Pi platforms is the Pygame module, which contains many functions to help create games. Try: import pygame. STEP 3 The result is an error in the IDLE…

HELLO, WORLD! It’s traditional in programming for the first code to be entered to output the words ‘Hello, World!’ to the screen. Interestingly, this dates back to 1968 using a language called BCPL. STEP 1 You can use the included Geany Programmer’s Editor to write, compile and execute your C++ code on the Raspberry Pi. You can find Geany as the first entry in the Programming section from the main Raspberry Pi menu. Click the Geany icon to open and start coding. STEP 2 The Geany editor is quite powerful while still being easy to use. All the code you enter shows in the main window and is numbered to help you keep track of your code. For now, in line 1, enter: STEP 3 It doesn’t look like much…

THE VALUE OF DATA There are many different data types available for the programmer in C++, such as an integer, floating point, Boolean, character and so on. It’s widely accepted that there are seven basic data types, often called Primitive Built-in Types; however, you can create your own data types should the need ever arise within your code. These basic types can also be extended using the following modifiers: Long, Short, Signed and Unsigned. Basically this means the modifiers can expand the minimum and maximum range values for each data type. For example, the int data type has a default value range of -2147483648 to 2147483647, a fair value, you would agree. Now, if you were to use one of the modifiers, the range alters: Naturally you can get away…

HELLO, DAVE You have already used cout, the standard output stream, throughout our code. Now you’re going to be using cin, the standard input stream, to prompt a user response. STEP 1 Anything that you want the user to input into the program needs to be stored somewhere in the system memory, so it can be retrieved and used. Therefore, any input must first be declared as a variable, so it’s ready to be used by the user. Start by creating a blank C++ file with headers. STEP 2 The data type of the variable must also match the type of input you want from the user. For example, to ask a user their age, you would use an integer like this: STEP 3 The cin command works in the…

Why Linux? What is it? Where do I get it? Why are there so many different versions of it? Most beginners ask these, and many more, questions when starting out. It’s true that Linux is an incredibly versatile and powerful operating system but where do you start? Thankfully, you can find the answers in this section. There is so much you can do with Linux but you need to know where to start; we’re here to help you out. In this section you can learn what Linux is, what a distro is and what a desktop environment is. You can also begin to explore how Linux works and how it can work for you. “How did you know so much about computers?” “I didn’t, it was the first one.”– Admiral…

MINTY INGREDIENTS Before we start working our way through this book, here’s what you need to install and run Linux Mint. You have several choices available, so take your time and see which works best for you. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS The minimum system requirements for Linux Mint are as follows: CPU – 700MHz RAM/Memory – 512MB Hard Drive space – 9GB (20GB recommended) Display – 1024 x 768 resolution Obviously the better the system you have, the better the experience will be and quicker too. USB INSTALLATION You can install Linux Mint onto your computer via USB or DVD. We look into each a little later on but if you’re already familiar with the process, or thinking of USB and just gathering the hardware you need, then you’re going to need…

“In real open source, you have the right to control your own destiny.”– Linus Torvalds (developer of the Linux kernel) It’s all fine and well talking about how good Linux is but how do you get it on your computer? Installing Linux is remarkably simple but there are several options available to you. This section looks into how you can download the Linux ISO, install it on a PC as your main operating system and even how to install a virtual environment. With a virtual environment you can run Linux while still using your main operating system, be that Windows or macOS. Intrigued? Read on and find out more.…

GOING VIRTUAL Using a Virtual Machine (VM) takes resources from your computer: memory, hard drive space, processor usage and so on. Make sure you have enough of each before commencing. STEP 1 We’re using VirtualBox in this instance, as it’s one of the easiest virtual environments to get to grips with. Enter www.virtualbox.org and click on ‘Download VirtualBox’. This takes you to the main download page. Locate the correct host for your system: Windows or Mac, the Host being the current installed operating system, and click the link to begin the download. STEP 2 Next, while still at the VirtualBox download page, locate the VirtualBox Extension Pack link. The Extension Pack supports USB devices as well as numerous other extras that can help make the VM environment a more accurate…

CINNAMON VIRTUALBOX FIX You’ve already looked at some list functions, using. insert,. remove, and. pop but there are also functions that can be applied to strings. STEP 1 Before we begin, we’re assuming you’re having this issue within Virtualbox. The Software Rendering message appears in the top right of the desktop. To fix this, click on Devices in the Virtualbox window, followed by Insert Guest Additions CD Image. STEP 2 The Guest Additions CD contains drivers for Virtualbox, including the virtual video hardware. When it’s loaded in, you get a ‘software needs running’ notification box with two options, Cancel and Run. Click the Run button and enter your Linux user password. STEP 3 After a moment or two you’re automatically dropped into a command line view, called the Terminal in…

DID YOU KNOW… July 20th 1969 is remembered as a turning point in human history, when mankind first stepped on the moon. The software that helped the crew make that pivotal voyage didn’t even exist at the time and had to be developed from scratch. Using a new method of storing programs called Rope Memory, the engineers at MIT Instrumentation Laboratory populated the memory with a special version of assembly. Incredibly, that code is freely available to view on GitHub. Uploaded by a researcher in 2003, you can view the code by visiting www.github.com/chrislgarry/Apollo-11/. Look out for code snippets, such as Burn_Baby_Burn, in particular line 925 with the comment “Goodbye. Come again soon.” Have a look through, and see what else you can find. One giant leap for mankind, and…

ANONYMITY WITH MINT While it’s virtually impossible to become totally anonymous online, you can take measures to ensure our privacy is at its best. STEP 1 Starting with the basics, use HTTPS instead of the standard HTTP when browsing. This means that anything that’s transmitted over HTTPS is secure (hence the S part at the end) and encrypted. STEP 2 When you’re browsing, consider using the Incognito or Private browsing modes available in a browser. This disables your web history and web cache, allowing you to browse without the details being stored for later scrutiny by someone else. However, it doesn’t stop any data or search tracking. STEP 3 Although using Google may seem like the obvious choice for a modern Internet search, the company does track all searches made…

USING APT-GET To update and upgrade via the Terminal you use the APT (Advanced Packaging Tool) command. It’s a powerful command and combines different elements depending on its use. STEP 1 Start by opening a new Terminal or if you already have one opened clear its contents with the clear command. This starts you off with a clean slate on which to work. STEP 2 Enter: apt-get into the Terminal. This brings up a list of the most used apt-get commands, along with a brief description of what the command does. It’s worth having a look at, even if it doesn’t make a huge amount of sense at this time. STEP 3 Apt-get is used to update and upgrade the software in Mint, as well as Ubuntu and other Debian-based…

MORE TERMINAL WORK Creating content using the Terminal isn’t quite as strenuous as it may first appear. Yes, the Terminal can look a daunting place for the newcomer, but once mastered it’s really quite intuitive. STEP 1 Open up the Terminal, and make sure you’re in the Home folder. If not use the cd ~ command to return you to the Home folder from wherever you’re currently located. STEP 2 Let’s start by creating a new folder within Home, and call it Test. The command you’ll need is mkdir Test. Press Enter to create the folder when you’ve typed in the command, then cd Test and press Enter. This will Change Directory (hence CD) to the newly created Test folder. STEP 3 Your command line should change to the Test…

MORE FUN, YAY Since the Terminal session is already open, and your keyboard digits are nicely warmed up, here are another two pages of Terminal nonsense. STEP 1 Remember the old ZX Spectrum days of computing, when you could type in 10 print “Hello”, 20 goto 10 and Hello would list down the screen? Well, in Linux Mint you can do the same. Simply enter yes followed by some text, i.e. yes Linux is ace. It’ll keep going until you press Ctrl+C. STEP 2 The Matrix was one of the most graphically copied films ever released; there’s even a version of the Matrix code available for Linux Mint. Install it with: sudo apt-get install cmatrix. When it’s done enter: cmatrix and follow the white rabbit, Neo. Unlike the real Matrix…

GET SCRIPTING A Bash script is simply a series of commands that Mint will run through to complete a certain task. They can be simple or remarkably complex, it all depends on the situation. STEP 1 You’ll be working within the Terminal and with a text editor throughout the coming pages. There are alternatives to the text editor, which we’ll look at in a moment but for the sake of ease, we’ll be doing our examples in Xed. Before you begin, however, run through the customary update check: sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade. STEP 2 There are several text editors we can use to create a Bash script: Xed, Vi, Nano, Vim, GNU Emacs and so on. In the end it all comes down to personal preference. Our…

CHOICES AND LOOPS Let’s bring in another command, CHOICE, along with some nested IF and ELSE statements. Start by creating a new script called mychoice.sh. STEP 1 The mychoice.sh script is beginning to look a lot more complex. What we have here is a list of four choices, with three possible options. The options: Mint, Is, and Awesome will be displayed if the user presses the correct option key. If not, then the menu will reappear, the fourth choice. STEP 2 If you follow the script through you soon get the hang of what’s going on, based on what we’ve already covered. WHILE, IF, and ELSE, with the FI closing loop statement will run through the options and bring you back to the start if you pick the wrong option.…

TOP 10 COMMANDS These may not be the most common commands used by everyone but they will certainly feature frequently for many users of Linux and the command line. cd The cd command is one of the commands you will use the most at the command line in Linux. It allows you to change your working directory. You use it to move around within the hierarchy of your file system. You can also use chdir. ls The ls command shows you the files in your current directory. Used with certain options, it lets you see file sizes, when files where created and file permissions. For example, ls ~ shows you the files that are in your home directory. cp The cp command is used to make copies of files and…

“Python is an experiment in how much freedom programmers need. Too much freedom and nobody can read another’s code; too little and expressiveness is endangered.”– Guido van Rossum (Developer of the Python programming language) Python is a fantastic programming language, combining ease of use with a generous helping of power to allow the user to create both minor utilities or performance-heavy computational tasks. However, there’s more to Python than simply being another programming language. It has a vibrant and lively community behind it that shares knowledge, code and project ideas, as well as bug fixes for future releases. We’ve used a Raspberry Pi for this section of the book, as it’s Linux based and one of the best coding platforms available. The Pi’s features and functions make it the perfect…

STARTING PYTHON We’re not going to go into the details of getting the Raspberry Pi up and running, there’s plenty of material already available on that subject. However, once you’re ready, fire up your Pi and get ready for coding. STEP 1 With the Raspbian desktop loaded, click on the Menu button followed by Programming > Python 3 (IDLE). This opens the Python 3 Shell. Windows and Mac users can find the Python 3 IDLE Shell from within the Windows Start button menu and via Finder. STEP 2 The Shell is where you can enter code and see the responses and output of code you’ve programmed into Python. This is a kind of sandbox, where you’re able to try out some simple code and processes. STEP 3 For example, in…

COMMAND THE CODE Using the code we created in the previous tutorial, the one we named hello.py, let’s see how you can run code that was made in the GUI at the command line level. STEP 1 Python, in Linux, comes with two possible ways of executing code via the command line. One of the ways is with Python 2, whilst the other uses the Python 3 libraries and so on. First though, drop into the command line or Terminal on your operating system. STEP 2 Just as before, we’re using a Raspberry Pi: Windows users will need to click the Start button and search for CMD, then click the Command Line returned search; and macOS users can get access to their command line by clicking Go > Utilities >…

#COMMENTS! Programmers use a method of keeping their code readable by commenting on certain sections. If a variable is used, the programmer comments on what it’s supposed to do, for example. It’s just good practise. STEP 1 Start by creating a new instance of the IDLE Editor (File > New File) and create a simple variable and print command: Save the file and execute the code. STEP 2 Running the code will return the line: The value of A is, 10 into the IDLE Shell window, which is what we expected. Now, add some of the types of comments you’d normally see within code: STEP 3 Resave the code and execute it. You can see that the output in the IDLE Shell is still the same as before, despite the…

FUNKY FUNCTIONS A function is a command that you enter into Python to do something. It’s a little piece of self-contained code that takes data, works on it and then returns the result. STEP 1 It’s not just data that a function works on. They can do all manner of useful things in Python, such as sort data, change items from one format to another and check the length or type of items. Basically, a function is a short word that’s followed by brackets. For example, len(), list() or type(). STEP 2 A function takes data, usually a variable, works on it depending on what the function is programmed to do and returns the end value. The data being worked on goes inside the brackets, so if you wanted to…

“The most important single aspect of software development is to be clear about what you are trying to build.”– Bjarne Stroustrup (Developer and creator of C++) C++ is an excellent, high-level programming language that’s used in a multitude of technologies. Everything from your favourite mobile app, console and PC game to entire operating systems are developed with C++ at the core, together with a collection of software development kits and custom libraries. C++ is the driving force behind most of what you use on a daily basis, which makes it a complex and extraordinarily powerful language to get to grips with. It’s the code behind Linux itself, as well as most of the behind the scenes drivers, library files and control elements of most, if not all, operating systems. This…

#INCLUDE <C++ STRUCTURE> Learning the basics of programming, you begin to understand the structure of a program. The commands may be different from one language to the next but you can start to see how the code works. C++ C++ was invented by Danish student Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979, as a part of his Ph.D. thesis. Initially C++ was called C with Classes, which added features to the already popular C programming language, while making it a more user-friendly environment through a new structure. #INCLUDE The structure of a C++ program is quite precise. Every C++ code begins with a directive: #include <>. The directive instructs the pre-processor to include a section of the standard C++ code. For example: #include <iostream> includes the iostream header to support input/output operations. INT…

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMENTING Comments inside code are basically human readable descriptions that detail what the code is doing at that particular point. They don’t sound especially important but code without comments is one of the many frustrating areas of programming, regardless of whether you’re a professional or just starting out. In short, all code should be commented in such a manner as to effectively describe the purpose of a line, section or individual elements. You should get in to the habit of commenting as much as possible, by imagining that someone who doesn’t know anything about programming can pick up your code and understand what it’s going to do simply by reading your comments. In a professional environment, comments are vital to the success of the code and ultimately,…

STRING THEORY There are different ways in which you can create a string of characters, which historically are all carried over from the original C language and still supported by C++. STEP 1 To create a string, you use the char function. Open a new C++ file and begin with the usual header: STEP 2 It’s easy to confuse a string with an array. Here’s an array, which can be terminated with a null character: STEP 3 Build and run the code and ‘Welcome’ appears on the screen. While this is perfectly fine, it’s not a string. A string is a class, which defines objects that can be represented as a stream of characters and doesn’t need to be terminated like an array. The code can therefore be represented as:…

DID YOU KNOW… released in 1982 for various platforms, Melbourne House’s The Hobbit was a coding work of genius. Developed by Philip Mitchell and Dr. Veronika Megler, The Hobbit was uniquely coded using a parser called ‘Inglish’ which allowed the player to enter full sentences, such as “Take sword from Gandalf, and kill goblin with it.” Furthermore, each object in the game had a specific size, weight and solidity; so if you sat on a stool, and someone picked up the stool or threw it, then your character would be taken along with it. Also, in early versions of the game, the non-playing characters would often move around the map and capture and kill each other before the player had even reached that stage in the game. There was even a randomiser…